Citizenship by Descent: 30+ Countries With Ancestry Passports

Every year, thousands of Americans discover they already qualify for a second passport — and they never had to fill out a single visa application. No investment minimums. No language tests. No employer sponsors. The path was sitting in their family tree the entire time.

Citizenship by descent — sometimes called citizenship by ancestry or jure sanguinis(“right of blood”) — is the legal principle that you inherit citizenship from your parents, grandparents, or in some cases great-grandparents, regardless of where you were born. If your Italian grandparent was born in Italy, you may qualify for Italian citizenship. If your grandfather was born in Cork, you may be Irish. If your family fled Poland in 1905, you may be Polish.

This is not a loophole. It is codified law in dozens of countries, and it is the single most discussed topic on r/IWantOut— Reddit's largest expat community — for good reason. A European passport through ancestry gives you the unrestricted right to live and work in all 27 EU member states plus Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland through freedom of movement agreements. No visa applications. No income thresholds. No expiration dates. Once you have your second passport, use our visa checker to see what it unlocks, or find the best country for your priorities across 95 destinations.

But the rules vary enormously between countries — and they change fast. Italy restricted its once-unlimited program to grandparents in March 2025, while the UK cuts you off at one generation. Some countries require you to prove your ancestor never gave up their citizenship. Others require you to speak the language. A few will hand you a passport in six months; others take four years.

This guide covers every major citizenship-by-descent program worth pursuing, ranked by how accessible and generous each country's rules actually are. If you have European, Middle Eastern, or other ancestry, there is a real chance one of these programs applies to you.

Once you secure a second passport, the next step is choosing where to actually live. Our guide to choosing which country to move to provides a decision framework, or explore our best countries in Europe for EU passport holders. Browse by lifestyle: retirement, digital nomads, or families.

Which countries offer citizenship by descent in 2026?

Direct answer: more than 25 countries grant citizenship through ancestry. The three most-used programmes are Ireland (grandparent rule), Italy (restricted to grandparents born in Italy as of March 2025), and Poland (unlimited generations back to 1918). Canada significantly expanded its descent rules in December 2025. The table below surfaces the most common decision factors at a glance:

Polandis the underrated pick when Ireland and Italy don’t apply — no generational cap, and any Polish citizen who held citizenship on or after 1920 passes it down. Hungary and Lithuania are narrower (Hungary requires Hungarian-language ability; Lithuania requires pre-1940 ancestry). Germany Art. 116 is the route for Jewish descendants of those who lost citizenship between 1933 and 1945. See the second-passport guide for a broader comparison against CBI and naturalisation routes, and visa checker to see what each passport unlocks.

2025–2026 Policy Updates: What Changed

Two major policy changes in 2025–2026 have reshaped the citizenship-by-descent landscape. If you have Italian or Canadian ancestry, read these carefully — the rules you researched last year may no longer apply.

Italy: Jure Sanguinis Restricted to Grandparents (March 2025)

In March 2025, Italy enacted sweeping restrictions to its jure sanguinis citizenship-by-descent program. The new law limits claims to applicants with a grandparent born in Italy. Previously, Italy had no generational limit at all — applicants routinely traced lineage back 4, 5, or even 6 generations. That era is now over.

The impact is massive. Thousands of pending applications from Americans tracing ancestry to great-grandparents or earlier have been affected. The r/juresanguinis community and expat media covered this extensively. If your claim relies on an ancestor more distant than a grandparent, it is no longer viable under the new rules. If you have a grandparent born in Italy, however, the program still works — and you should act quickly, as further restrictions remain politically possible.

Canada: Citizenship by Descent Massively Expanded (December 2025)

In December 2025, Canada enacted a landmark expansion of its citizenship-by-descent rules. Previously, Canadian citizenship by descent was limited to the first generation born abroad — only people with a Canadian-born parent qualified. The new law extends eligibility significantly further, meaning millions of Americans with Canadian-born parents or grandparents may now qualify for Canadian citizenship.

This has been one of the most viral immigration stories of early 2026. Canada already has one of the world's most valuable passports (visa-free access to 185+ countries), and the expansion means a dramatically larger pool of eligible applicants. If you have Canadian-born parents or grandparents, check your eligibility with Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC).

Top 10 Countries for Citizenship by Descent

We ranked these programs on a composite score of generational reach (how far back you can claim), documentation burden, processing time, cost, and the practical value of the resulting citizenship (EU access, visa-free travel, dual citizenship tolerance). A higher score means a more accessible, more generous program.

1. Italy — Still Powerful, but Restricted Since March 2025

Italy's jure sanguinis program was historically the most generous citizenship-by-descent program in the world. Until March 2025, there was no generational limit— applicants routinely traced lineage back 4 to 6 generations. The new law now limits claims to applicants with a grandparent born in Italy. This is still generous by global standards (most countries limit to parents only), but the unlimited era is over.

The core rule remains: Italian citizenship passes from parent to child at birth, unless the chain was broken by voluntary naturalization in another country beforethe child was born. So if your grandfather was born in Italy and emigrated to the US, and he did not naturalize as an American citizen until after your parent was born, your parent inherited Italian citizenship — and so did you. But if your connection is through a great-grandparent or further back, the March 2025 law means you no longer qualify.

Key Requirements

• Generational limit: Grandparent born in Italy (since March 2025). Previously unlimited.
• Unbroken lineage: Your Italian ancestor must not have naturalized as a citizen of another country before the birth of the next person in the line. This is the critical test.
• 1948 rule: Prior to January 1, 1948, Italian citizenship could only pass through the paternal line. If your claim passes through a woman who had a child before 1948, you must file a 1948 case through an Italian court rather than through the consulate. These cases are still successful but take longer and require a lawyer.
• Required documents: Birth, marriage, death, and naturalization certificates for every person in the lineage from your Italian ancestor to you. Each document must be a certified copy from the issuing authority, apostilled, and translated into Italian by a certified translator.
• Processing time: Varies wildly. Italian consulates in the US have backlogs ranging from 2 to 10+ years just for an appointment. Many applicants apply through a comune (town hall) in Italy directly, which typically takes 3 to 6 months but requires you to establish temporary residency in Italy.
• Cost: EUR 300 consular fee. Total cost including document procurement, apostilles, translations, and potentially legal help ranges from USD 2,000 to USD 10,000+.
• Language requirement: None.

The 2025 Restrictions — What Changed

Italy enacted two waves of changes in 2025. First, the Tajani Decree (regulatory changes from late 2024 taking effect in early 2025) tightened procedural requirements. Then, in March 2025, parliament passed the generational cap that had been debated for years. The key changes:

• Generational cap enacted (March 2025):Claims are now limited to applicants with a grandparent born in Italy. This ended Italy's historic unlimited generational reach. Thousands of pending applications relying on great-grandparents or earlier ancestors were affected.
• Stricter document requirements:Consulates are now requiring more thorough documentation of the “no naturalization” proof. Applicants must provide a Certificate of Non-Existence of citizenship records (often called a USCIS search or “no naturalization” letter) for each ancestor in the chain.
• Comune crackdown: Several comuni that were popular among American applicants (particularly in Puglia and Basilicata) have implemented stricter residency verification for applicants who establish temporary residency solely to bypass consular backlogs. Officials are now more likely to verify genuine residency intent.
• Court case fees: 1948 cases (where the lineage passes through a woman before 1948) now face higher court filing fees and longer processing times. Budget EUR 3,000 to EUR 5,000 in legal fees for a 1948 case, with processing taking 12 to 24 months.

The bottom line: if you have a grandparent born in Italy and a viable jure sanguinisclaim, start the process now. The program is significantly more restricted than it was before March 2025, but it still offers full EU citizenship with no language requirement — which remains exceptional by global standards. Further restrictions remain politically possible.

Common Pitfalls — Italy

• Your ancestor naturalized too early. The most common dealbreaker. If your Italian great-grandfather naturalized as an American citizen in 1910 but your grandfather was not born until 1915, the chain is broken. You need the exact naturalization date from USCIS or NARA records and the birth date of the next person in the line.
• Name discrepancies across documents.“Giuseppe Rossi” on the Italian birth certificate became “Joseph Ross” on the American marriage certificate. Every name variation must be reconciled, often requiring legal amendments to original records.
• Missing or destroyed records. Some Italian comuni lost civil records in World War II. Church records (atti di nascita from parish archives) can sometimes substitute, but this adds complexity.
• Consulate appointment backlogs. The Italian consulate in New York reportedly has a wait time exceeding 10 years. Houston, Los Angeles, and Philadelphia are similarly backlogged. This is why many applicants apply through Italy directly.

2. Poland — Unlimited Generations, Underrated Program

Poland's citizenship-by-descent program is remarkably similar to Italy's in one critical respect: there is no generational limit. If your ancestor was a Polish citizen and never voluntarily renounced that citizenship, the citizenship passed to their descendants. The Polish government treats this not as a grant of new citizenship but as a confirmation of existing citizenship— the legal position is that you have always been Polish; you simply have not had it documented.

This distinction matters practically. Because it is a confirmation rather than an acquisition, the process is technically an administrative recognition of a fact rather than a discretionary decision. If you meet the criteria, you are entitled to the confirmation.

Key Requirements

• Generational limit: None. Claims based on ancestors who left Poland in the 1800s are processed regularly.
• Citizenship continuity:Your ancestor must not have voluntarily renounced Polish citizenship. This is the tricky part. Poland lost and regained independence multiple times, and citizenship laws changed with each government. The key periods are 1920–1939 (Second Republic), 1945–1989 (People's Republic), and 1989 onward.
• Naturalization abroad: Unlike Italy, Polish law did not automatically strip citizenship upon naturalization in another country in all periods. Whether your ancestor lost Polish citizenship by naturalizing elsewhere depends on when they naturalized and under which law. This is a nuanced legal analysis that often requires expert help.
• Required documents: Birth, marriage, and death certificates for the entire lineage. Polish civil records, naturalization records from the destination country, and evidence of Polish citizenship of the original ancestor (such as Polish military records, passports, or księgi ludności— population registers).
• Processing time: 3 to 12 months through the relevant Voivodeship Office (Urząd Wojewódzki). Faster than Italian consulates, though still unpredictable.
• Cost: Government fees are minimal (approximately PLN 219 or about USD 55). Document procurement and legal assistance typically add USD 1,500 to USD 5,000.
• Language requirement: None for confirmation of citizenship. Polish language proficiency is required only for naturalization (a different process).

Common Pitfalls — Poland

• Changing borders.The territory your ancestor was born in may have been part of the Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, or Prussia at the time. Whether they were “Polish citizens” depends on whether they gained citizenship under the 1920 Citizenship Act when the Second Republic was established.
• Records in Russian, German, or Yiddish. Vital records from the partition era were written in the language of the occupying power. Tracking down and translating these records requires specialized archival knowledge.
• Holocaust-era gaps. Many records were destroyed during World War II. Jewish families may need to rely on alternative documentation, including JRI-Poland databases, Yad Vashem records, or ITS (International Tracing Service) documents.

3. Ireland — The Grandparent Rule

Ireland offers one of the most straightforward citizenship-by-descent processes in Europe, and it benefits from a massive diaspora: roughly 33 million Americans claim Irish ancestry. See how Ireland compares to the UK in our UK vs Ireland comparison. The rules are tiered by generation, and clarity is their greatest strength.

Key Requirements

• Parent born in Ireland:If either of your parents was born on the island of Ireland (including Northern Ireland), you are automatically an Irish citizen. You simply apply for a passport directly — no registration required.
• Grandparent born in Ireland: If one of your grandparents was born in Ireland but your parents were not, you can claim citizenship by registering with the Foreign Births Register (FBR). Once registered, you are a full Irish citizen with all rights including EU free movement.
• Great-grandparent or further back: You cannot claim directly. However, if your parent registered on the Foreign Births Register before you were born, they became Irish citizens, and you can then claim through them. If they did not register before your birth, the chain is broken and you do not qualify.
• Required documents:Your birth certificate, your parent's birth certificate, your grandparent's birth certificate (showing birth in Ireland), and your parents' marriage certificate. All must be original or certified copies.
• Processing time: The FBR has been running 12 to 18 months for processing as of 2025, up from 6 to 8 months pre-pandemic. This is a known bottleneck.
• Cost: EUR 278 for FBR registration.
• Language requirement: None.

Common Pitfalls — Ireland

• The generational cutoff is strict. Unlike Italy and Poland, Ireland does not go past grandparents unless your parent registered first. No exceptions.
• Northern Ireland births.Births in Northern Ireland qualify for Irish citizenship under the Good Friday Agreement. This is sometimes overlooked by applicants who assume Northern Ireland is “UK only.”
• FBR backlog. The 12 to 18 month processing time is frustrating but consistent. There is no way to expedite it. Apply as early as possible if you plan to use the citizenship for relocation.

Italy vs Ireland vs Poland — Side by Side

These three programs are the most commonly pursued by Americans. Here is how they compare on the metrics that matter most. We compare Italy and Ireland first, then Italy and Poland. For live data on cost, safety, and healthcare, see Italy vs Ireland and Italy vs Poland in our comparison tool.

Ireland wins on simplicity and speed — if you qualify. The grandparent cutoff is rigid, but the process itself is the easiest of the three. Once you have citizenship, our complete guide to moving to Ireland covers what comes next. Italy wins on generational reach and is the only option for many Americans whose ancestors left Europe four or more generations ago. Poland is the dark horse: comparable reach to Italy, faster processing, and much lower government fees, but partition-era records make the research phase complex. If you qualify for more than one country, a personalized Decision Brief weighs cost of living, visa timelines, and tax implications side by side for your specific situation.

4. Hungary — Unlimited Ancestry, Language Barrier

Hungary's simplified naturalization program allows descendants of former Hungarian citizens to apply for citizenship regardless of how many generations have passed. This is a genuine unlimited-generation claim, and Hungary also allows dual citizenship, making it attractive on paper.

The catch is the Hungarian language requirement. Applicants must pass an interview conducted entirely in Hungarian, covering basic conversational topics, Hungarian culture, and the Hungarian national anthem. Hungarian is one of the most difficult languages in Europe for English speakers, and the interview requirement is the primary barrier for most diaspora applicants. Realistically, expect 6 to 18 months of dedicated language study before you can pass.

Key Requirements

• Generational limit: None. You must prove that at least one ancestor was a Hungarian citizen.
• Language interview: Required. Conducted in Hungarian at a consulate or Hungarian government office. This is a real conversation, not a multiple-choice test.
• Required documents: Birth, marriage, and death certificates showing the lineage. Hungarian civil records, military service records, or anyakönyvi kivonatok (vital records extracts) from Hungarian archives.
• Processing time: 3 to 9 months after the interview.
• Cost: The application itself is free. Document procurement and translation typically cost USD 1,000 to USD 3,000. Language courses add another USD 500 to USD 2,000.
• Border changes: The historical Kingdom of Hungary was much larger than modern Hungary. Ancestors born in what is now Slovakia, Romania, Serbia, Ukraine, or Croatia may still qualify if they were Hungarian citizens before the 1920 Treaty of Trianon redraws.

5. Lithuania — Restored Citizenship for Pre-1940 Descendants

Lithuania offers citizenship restoration for descendants of Lithuanian citizens who left the country before June 15, 1940 — the date of the Soviet occupation. This is distinct from a standard descent claim because Lithuania treats it as a restoration of citizenship that was wrongfully taken, rather than a new grant.

Key Requirements

• Qualifying ancestor: Must have been a Lithuanian citizen who departed Lithuania before June 15, 1940. Most qualifying ancestors emigrated between 1880 and 1940.
• Generational limit: No strict limit, but the anchor ancestor must have left before 1940. Second, third, and fourth generation descendants all qualify.
• Dual citizenship: Lithuania has restrictive dual citizenship rules. The Constitutional Court has ruled that dual citizenship is generally not permitted, though exceptions exist for those who acquire Lithuanian citizenship by restoration (not naturalization). This area is legally evolving, so consult a Lithuanian immigration lawyer.
• Required documents:Evidence of the ancestor's Lithuanian citizenship (birth records, passports, military records from Lithuanian archives), proof of departure before 1940, and the full lineage.
• Processing time: 6 to 12 months through the Migration Department in Vilnius.
• Cost: Government fee of EUR 50. Total cost with document procurement and legal help: USD 1,500 to USD 4,000.
• Language requirement: None for restoration. Required for naturalization (a different path).

6. Israel — Law of Return

Israel's Law of Return is not technically citizenship by descent in the traditional sense — it is a right of immigration granted to anyone who is Jewish, has a Jewish parent, has a Jewish grandparent, or is the spouse of someone who qualifies. It is the broadest and fastest path to citizenship on this list for those who qualify.

Key Requirements

• Qualifying criteria: Jewish by birth or conversion (recognized conversions only), child of a Jewish parent, grandchild of a Jewish grandparent, or spouse of any qualifying person. The grandparent rule means many people with partial Jewish ancestry qualify.
• Generational limit: Grandparent. The grandchild of a Jewish person qualifies, but the great-grandchild does not unless their parent independently qualifies.
• Required documents: Proof of Jewish ancestry (birth certificates, synagogue records, community letters, JCC membership, ketubah, or other documentation). A letter from a recognized rabbi confirming Jewish identity is commonly submitted.
• Processing time: Can be as fast as 3 to 6 months for straightforward cases. Israeli citizenship is granted upon arrival through the Aliyah process, though you can also apply through Israeli consulates abroad.
• Cost: The Aliyah process itself is free and includes government benefits (absorption basket, temporary housing assistance, tax benefits). This is the only program on this list where the government pays you to take citizenship.
• Dual citizenship: Fully permitted.
• Military service: Mandatory for new citizens who immigrate before age 26 (men) or 24 (women), though older immigrants and those with families are typically exempt.

For a full overview of daily life, costs, visas, and the tech scene, read our complete guide to moving to Israel.

7. Germany — Article 116 for Descendants of Persecution Victims

Germany's citizenship-by-descent rules are among the most restrictive in Europe for general claims — typically limited to one or two generations. However, Article 116 of the German Basic Law creates a powerful exception: descendants of people who were deprived of German citizenship between January 30, 1933 and May 8, 1945 on political, racial, or religious grounds (primarily Jewish, Roma, and political opponents of the Nazi regime) have a constitutional right to restoration of citizenship. There is no generational limit for Article 116 claims.

Key Requirements

• Qualifying ancestor: Must have been a German citizen (or entitled to German citizenship) who was persecuted under the Nazi regime and thereby lost or was denied citizenship.
• Generational limit: None for Article 116 claims. For standard descent claims, typically limited to one generation (parent must have been German at your birth).
• Required documents:Evidence of the ancestor's German citizenship, evidence of persecution (emigration records, concentration camp records, Gestapo files, records from ITS in Bad Arolsen), and the complete lineage.
• Processing time: 12 to 24 months through the Federal Office of Administration (Bundesverwaltungsamt).
• Cost: Free. The German government charges no fees for Article 116 applications.
• Language requirement: None for Article 116.
• Dual citizenship: Permitted for Article 116 applicants.

A 2019 amendment expanded Article 116 eligibility to include descendants who were excluded under earlier interpretations of the law, including children born out of wedlock to German fathers and children of German mothers who lost citizenship upon marriage to a foreigner. Germany has been actively processing these expanded claims since 2021.

8. Greece — Patrilineal Descent with Recent Reforms

Greece grants citizenship to descendants of Greek citizens, though the rules have historically favored patrilineal descent. Reforms in recent decades have equalized the rules, but the practical experience varies depending on when your ancestor left Greece and through which parent the lineage runs.

Key Requirements

• Father or grandfather born in Greece: The most straightforward path. If your father is Greek, you are automatically Greek regardless of where you were born. Grandchild claims through a Greek grandfather are also generally accepted.
• Mother born in Greece: Claims through the maternal line are recognized under current law, but children born before 1984 may face additional documentation requirements due to the earlier patrilineal-only rules.
• Generational limit:No formal limit, but claims beyond grandparents become significantly harder to document and may require evidence of the ancestor's enrollment in a Greek municipal registry (dimotologio).
• Required documents:Birth certificates, marriage certificates, the ancestor's Greek birth certificate or municipal registry entry, and proof of lineage. Documents must be apostilled and translated.
• Processing time: 6 to 24 months depending on the complexity of the case and the municipal office handling it.
• Cost: Modest government fees (under EUR 100). Total cost with document procurement: USD 1,000 to USD 3,000.
• Language requirement: Not required for descent claims. Required for naturalization.
• Military service: Greek male citizens are subject to mandatory military service. Diaspora Greeks can typically defer or receive exemptions, but this is worth investigating before applying.

9. Portugal — Sephardic Jewish Ancestry Route

Portugal's standard citizenship-by-descent rules are limited to children of Portuguese citizens — a single generation. However, Portugal created a unique pathway in 2015 for descendants of Sephardic Jews expelled during the Portuguese Inquisition in the 15th and 16th centuries. This program grants Portuguese (and therefore EU) citizenship to applicants who can demonstrate Sephardic heritage and a connection to Portugal.

Key Requirements

• Sephardic Jewish heritage: You must prove descent from Sephardic Jews with historical ties to Portugal. This is typically demonstrated through a surname on recognized Sephardic surname lists, family traditions, genealogical records, or DNA evidence combined with documentary evidence.
• Community certification: You must obtain a certificate from the Jewish community of Lisbon or Porto confirming your Sephardic heritage and connection to Portugal. This is the critical step and the most subjective.
• Portuguese language and ties:Following amendments in 2022, applicants must now demonstrate “effective ties to Portugal” — which can include knowledge of Portuguese (Ladino is accepted), regular visits to Portugal, property ownership, or business ties. This requirement was added after an influx of applications from Brazilian and Israeli citizens.
• Processing time: 12 to 36 months. The program slowed significantly after the tightened requirements in 2022.
• Cost: EUR 250 government fee plus community certification costs. Legal assistance typically adds USD 2,000 to USD 8,000.

Common Pitfalls — Portugal Sephardic Route

• Community certification is not guaranteed. The Lisbon and Porto Jewish communities have become more selective since the 2022 amendments. Having a Sephardic surname alone is no longer sufficient.
• “Effective ties” are vague. There is no clear definition of what constitutes sufficient ties. Some applicants have been rejected despite speaking Portuguese, while others with weaker language skills but property in Portugal have been approved. Consult a lawyer who specializes in this program.

10. United Kingdom — Parent Only, and No EU Access

The UK has the most restrictive citizenship-by-descent rules of any country on this list. You qualify for British citizenship by descent only if one of your parents was a British citizen at the time of your birth. Grandparents do not count. Great-grandparents do not count. There is no Foreign Births Register equivalent that extends the chain.

Key Requirements

• Generational limit:One generation only. Your parent must have been a British citizen (not by descent themselves — the “double descent” rule means citizenship by descent cannot be passed on to a further generation unless the parent lived in the UK for 3 continuous years before your birth).
• Required documents:Your birth certificate and your parent's birth certificate showing birth in the UK, or your parent's naturalization certificate.
• Processing time: 6 to 8 months for registration.
• Cost: GBP 1,431 (as of 2025), one of the highest citizenship fees in the world.
• Post-Brexit reality: A British passport no longer grants EU free movement. You can visit the Schengen area for 90 days in any 180-day period, but you cannot live or work in the EU without a separate visa. This dramatically reduces the strategic value of British citizenship compared to any EU member state on this list.

Other Countries Worth Investigating

Beyond the top 10, several other countries offer descent-based citizenship pathways that may apply to your situation:

• Spain: Citizenship for grandchildren of Spanish exiles (Civil War and Franco dictatorship) under the Ley de Memoria Democrática(Democratic Memory Law). Applications accepted through October 2025. Also offers a Sephardic route similar to Portugal's, though it was officially closed to new applicants in 2024.
• Armenia: Ethnic Armenians can apply for citizenship through a simplified process. No generational limit. Requires proof of Armenian heritage and a basic language test.
• Croatia: Descendants of Croatian emigrants can apply for citizenship. No generational limit. Requires proof of Croatian origin and basic knowledge of Croatian language and culture.
• Romania: Citizenship restoration for descendants of former Romanian citizens, particularly those from Bessarabia (modern-day Moldova) and Bukovina. No generational limit. No language test.
• Latvia:Citizenship for descendants of Latvian citizens who left during the Soviet occupation (1940–1990). No language test for this category.

Step-by-Step: How to Research Your Eligibility

Before you hire a lawyer or start ordering certificates, you can do preliminary research yourself to determine whether a claim is viable. Here is the process:

1. Interview your oldest living relatives. Ask specific questions: Where was grandma born? When did great-grandpa arrive in the US? Did anyone in the family keep old passports, naturalization papers, or letters? Family oral history is the starting point for every successful claim.
2. Check naturalization records. The most common dealbreaker for Italian and Polish claims is that the ancestor naturalized before the next person in the line was born. US naturalization records are available through USCIS (for records after 1906) and NARA (for earlier records). You can request a USCIS genealogy search online.
3. Order vital records.Start collecting birth, marriage, and death certificates for every person in the lineage. US vital records are obtained from the relevant state's vital records office. Foreign records may require requests to the relevant government archive, church, or municipal office.
4. Determine the specific country's rules.Map your lineage against the requirements for the country you are targeting. Pay close attention to dates: when did your ancestor naturalize, when was the next child born, did the lineage pass through a woman before a date that matters (like Italy's 1948 cutoff)?
5. Consult a specialist.Once you have a preliminary lineage and records, consult an immigration lawyer or genealogist who specializes in the specific country's descent program. Italian jure sanguinis lawyers, Irish FBR specialists, and Polish citizenship confirmation consultants are niche but readily available online.

Document Checklist — What You Will Need

Regardless of which country you are applying to, you will likely need some combination of these documents. Start collecting them as early as possible — some take months to obtain.

• Birth certificates for every person in the lineage (you, your parent, your grandparent, your great-grandparent, etc. as far back as the claim goes). Must be certified copies from the issuing authority, not photocopies.
• Marriage certificates for each generation (to establish name changes and lineage connections).
• Death certificates for deceased ancestors in the lineage.
• Naturalization records (or proof of non-naturalization) for the emigrating ancestor. This is critical for Italian and Polish claims.
• The ancestor's foreign birth certificate or vital record from the origin country.
• Apostilles for each US-issued document (obtained from the Secretary of State in the issuing state).
• Certified translations of all documents into the target country's language.

For a complete pre-move preparation guide once you have your citizenship confirmed, see our moving abroad checklist. If you need to understand visa options while your descent claim is processing, our visa accessibility guide covers the fastest interim pathways.

Costs and Timeline Reality Check

Citizenship-by-descent sounds like a free passport, and in terms of government fees it nearly is. But the real costs are in document procurement, translations, apostilles, and legal help. Here is what to budget realistically:

• Italy (consulate route): USD 3,000 to USD 10,000+ over 2 to 10 years. The biggest cost is time, not money.
• Italy (in-country route via comune): USD 5,000 to USD 15,000 including temporary relocation costs, but completed in 3 to 6 months.
• Poland: USD 1,500 to USD 5,000 over 3 to 12 months. The cheapest EU citizenship-by-descent option.
• Ireland: USD 500 to USD 1,500 over 12 to 18 months. The simplest process if you have an Irish-born grandparent.
• Hungary: USD 1,500 to USD 5,000 (including language courses) over 12 to 24 months.
• Germany (Article 116): USD 500 to USD 2,000 over 12 to 24 months. Free government processing.
• Portugal (Sephardic): USD 3,000 to USD 10,000 over 12 to 36 months. High variance due to community certification and legal complexity.

Why This Matters Now

Several of these programs are under active political pressure to tighten or close. Italy has debated generational caps repeatedly. Portugal tightened its Sephardic route in 2022. Spain's Democratic Memory Law has a hard application deadline of October 2025. Hungary's simplified naturalization program could be modified by future governments.

If you suspect you have a viable claim, the best time to start the process is now. Document procurement alone can take 6 to 12 months, and once you start a claim, you are generally protected under the rules that existed at the time of application.

A second passport through ancestry is one of the most powerful assets you can hold. It is a permanent right to live and work in another country — or in the case of EU citizenship, in 30+ countries. It does not expire when a visa program changes. It does not depend on maintaining a minimum income. It passes to your children. And unlike investment-based citizenship programs that cost hundreds of thousands of dollars, it costs a fraction of that. Keep in mind that dual citizenship has tax implications — US citizens owe taxes on worldwide income regardless of where they live, and some ancestry countries have their own tax obligations for citizens abroad. A personalized Tax Report models the exact tax exposure for your income, nationality, and target country.

Start with your family tree. You might already be a citizen of somewhere you have never been.

Ready to figure out where you belong? Use our personalized matching tool to get country recommendations based on your background, or compare countries side-by-side to evaluate your options. Check our passport power explorerto see how your new passport stacks up for visa-free travel. If ancestry doesn't work out, explore investment-based citizenship routes or golden visa programs as alternatives.

For the top ancestry programs, explore our in-depth country profiles: Italy, Ireland, Poland, Hungary, and Germany.

Plan Your Move

• Passport Routes Explorer — find all citizenship pathways available to you
• Visa Checker — see visa-free access for your current and potential passports
• Tax Comparison Tool — compare tax systems across 95+ countries
• Cost of Living Calculator — what it actually costs to live in your target country
• Move Abroad Planner — step-by-step relocation timeline

Frequently Asked Questions

Passport Power by Country

• Italy Passport — visa-free access, EU freedom, and citizenship requirements
• Ireland Passport — EU + Common Travel Area access and citizenship by descent rules
• Germany Passport — one of the world’s most powerful passports
• Poland Passport — EU citizenship via ancestry
• Hungary Passport — simplified naturalization for descendants
• Portugal Passport — golden visa pathway to EU citizenship
• Israel Passport — Law of Return and citizenship eligibility
• Greece Passport — EU citizenship by descent